An In-Depth Analysis of the AU -AI Continental Strategy and Implications on AI Governance in the Continent.

Introduction

Artificial intelligence(AI) is a term that has been used since the 1950s and has been credited to John McCarthy, an American computer scientist and cognitive scientist.¹ It is also important to note that the earliest substantial work in the field of AI was done in 1935 by the British logician and computer pioneer Alan Mathison Turing.² The fast pace of technological advancement has led to many technology-related laws becoming redundant or developing inadequacies when it comes to addressing the specific concept of AI. In recent years, we have witnessed a surge in countries and regions enacting laws that address AI regulation intending to strike a balance between innovation and human rights, one of the most recent being the European Union AI Act.³

Observations on the growing need to regulate AI, the growth of continued AI use cases in Africa, and our unique African values and experiences inform the crucial need for home-grown regulations integrating AI into Africa’s socio-economic fabric. Several African countries have already developed national AI strategies, including Senegal, Benin, Egypt, Rwanda and Mauritius, even as the conversations on African-centric AI take shape across the continent. With this backdrop, the African Union (AU) sought to develop a harmonised AI strategy for Africa.

The AU Executive Council endorsed the Continental AI Strategy during its 45th Ordinary Session in Accra, Ghana, on July 18-19, 2024.⁴ This Strategy underscores Africa’s commitment to an Africa-centric, development-focused approach to AI, promoting ethical, responsible, and equitable practices.⁵ Built upon existing digital governance frameworks such as Resolution 473, the AU Data Policy Framework 2022 and the Malabo Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, it marks a significant step towards harnessing AI for the continent’s development. The Strategy was adopted in conjunction with the Digital Compact for Africa to guide African nations in their adoption of AI technologies as part of their efforts toward socio-economic development.⁶ Both frameworks are aligned with the AU’s 2030 Digital Transformation Strategy and Agenda 2063.

The Strategy’s overarching goal is to articulate a joint ambition for the development, adoption, and governance of AI across Africa, ensuring the benefits are equitably distributed while protecting vulnerable populations.⁷ It outlines five key components and 15 recommended action points: focusing on priority sectors like health, agriculture, and education; enhancing private sector development; fostering a vibrant AI startup ecosystem; developing robust data infrastructure; and addressing diverse legislative landscapes across African countries to facilitate cross-border data flows.⁸

The implementation plan within the Strategy spans from 2025 to 2030, with the first two years dedicated to research, public engagement, and partnerships for resource mobilisation.⁹ The latter phase will focus on reviewing progress and executing specific policy actions, supported by a detailed monitoring and evaluation framework to ensure accountability.¹⁰ The Strategy also advocates for stakeholder engagement, drawing from successful national initiatives like Nigeria’s AI Collective, which brings together private sector partners, academia, and civil society to drive AI governance and innovation collaboratively.¹¹ This collaborative approach is essential to addressing challenges such as ethical considerations, data privacy, and the risk of exacerbating inequalities.

Recognizing AI’s transformative potential, the Strategy envisions a prosperous, integrated Africa where responsible and ethical AI drives inclusive growth, resilience, and socio-economic development, leveraging the continent’s youthful, tech-savvy population.¹² AI is seen as a catalyst for innovation and new business opportunities, particularly for women and youth, enhancing Africa’s socio-economic landscape.¹³ While promoting AI’s benefits, the Strategy acknowledges its risks, calling for African-led research to assess AI’s short-, medium-, and long-term impacts on labour markets, value systems, and society.¹⁴ Building the necessary capabilities through investments in digital infrastructure, education, and training and fostering startups and innovation hubs is a key priority.

Cooperation is a central theme, encouraging multi-stakeholder dialogues and regional partnerships to strengthen Africa’s AI capabilities.¹⁵ The Strategy calls for increased public and private investment to support AI initiatives, which are vital for developing the infrastructure and resources needed to drive AI advancements and position Africa competitively in the global arena.¹⁶ Finally, the Strategy advocates for the need for an inclusive governance and regulatory framework, ensuring AI technologies are developed and deployed responsibly, safeguarding the rights and dignity of all individuals.¹⁷

The Goal of the Strategy

Africa’s Continental AI Strategy seeks to harness the transformative power of artificial intelligence for socio-economic advancement and cultural revitalization throughout the continent. ¹⁸ This strategy is designed to align with the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), focusing on inclusive growth, innovation, and the preservation of Africa’s rich cultural heritage.¹⁹ In the African context, this strategy recognizes that AI has the potential to address some of the continent’s most pressing challenges, such as improving healthcare delivery, enhancing agricultural productivity, and advancing education.²⁰According to the strategy document, AI is seen as a driving force for positive change, capable of creating new industries, generating employment opportunities, and supporting the preservation of Africa’s cultural identity.²¹

The Continental AI Strategy for Africa emphasises five key focus areas to harness the potential of AI for socio-economic development effectively. The first area is harnessing AI’s benefits, which aims to leverage AI technologies to improve livelihoods and enhance productivity across critical sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, education, and public services. ²²This focus aligns with the African Union’s Agenda 2063, promoting inclusivity and ensuring that advancements in AI contribute to the well-being of all African citizens.²³

The second area involves minimising risks associated with AI deployment, emphasising the importance of governance frameworks that prioritise human rights, diversity, and ethical considerations.²⁴ This approach seeks to mitigate potential harms such as bias and discrimination while ensuring that AI systems are culturally relevant and contextually appropriate.²⁵

The third focus area is building capabilities, which calls for significant investment in infrastructure, education, and research to develop local talent proficient in AI technologies.²⁶ This includes enhancing data availability and fostering an ecosystem that supports innovation. The fourth area, fostering regional and international cooperation, highlights the need for partnerships among African nations and global stakeholders to build national and regional AI capabilities.²⁷ Finally, the fifth focus area is stimulating investment in AI initiatives at both national and regional levels, encouraging public and private sector engagement to support the growth of AI-driven solutions.²⁸ Together, these focus areas create a comprehensive framework that positions Africa to leverage AI for sustainable development while addressing ethical challenges effectively.

On AI Governance and Regulation

AI governance and regulation in Africa play a crucial role in ensuring that the development and deployment of artificial intelligence technologies align with the continent’s broader developmental goals and protect African populations from potential harm.²⁹ While offering significant opportunities for progress, AI systems have demonstrated the potential to harm individuals and societies when inadequately regulated. Thus, the Strategy prioritises the establishment of robust AI governance frameworks that are grounded in ethical principles, democratic values, human rights, and the rule of law.³⁰ This approach aligns with Agenda 2063 vision of inclusive growth and sustainable development, ensuring that AI technologies serve African agendas while promoting equality, fairness, and accountability.³¹

A Multi-Tiered Approach to AI Governance

To implement effective AI governance, a multi-tiered approach is essential.³² This includes leveraging emerging best practices globally, such as those reflected in the EU AI Act and Canada’s AI and Data Act, while adapting them to Africa’s unique context.³³ AI governance must be inclusive, encompassing various stakeholders across the continent and ensuring that the benefits of AI are distributed equitably while risks are mitigated.³⁴ Regulatory regimes should be adaptable and agile, addressing the diverse levels of AI use and adoption within African ecosystems, including national, regional, and continental levels. The governance frameworks should also align with existing legislation, such as intellectual property, personal data protection, and consumer protection laws, while identifying and addressing regulatory gaps specific to AI, such as labour protections for gig workers and standards for AI use in health systems.³⁵

Enabling Policy Frameworks for AI in Africa

The Strategy further calls for the establishment of enabling policy frameworks, where national AI strategies and policies are aligned with key developmental priorities such as job creation, sustainable livelihoods, gender equality, health, and education.³⁶ Public consultations with diverse stakeholders, including governments, the private sector, academia, and civil society, will inform the design of these policies. Additionally, the development of AI assessment and evaluation tools, including impact assessments like UNESCO’s Ethical Impact Assessment, is highlighted as a best practice to measure AI’s real and potential effects on African societies.³⁷ Such mechanisms will help mitigate harm and ensure the responsible use of AI.

The Importance of Continuous African-Led Research

Continuous research is vital for the success of AI governance frameworks in Africa. African-led research should assess new risks arising from AI development and explore the efficacy of governance tools in promoting fair, inclusive, and sustainable AI systems. Research initiatives must also investigate the ethical and societal implications of AI in Africa, ensuring that emerging AI technologies are adapted to the continent’s socio-economic realities.³⁸ By supporting research institutions like the African Observatory on Responsible AI, the Strategy aims to facilitate an environment where AI is effectively governed, researched, and regulated in a manner that upholds human rights, safety, and social progress.³⁹

High-Level Recommendations and Collaborative Governance

High-level recommendations from the Strategy advocate for cooperation among AU Member States in developing multi-tiered AI governance systems that ensure transparency, accountability, and equitable distribution of AI benefits.⁴⁰ The Strategy advocates for the establishment of independent oversight institutions to enforce compliance with emerging standards, provide access to redress mechanisms, and support regulatory sandboxes for AI innovation.⁴¹ In addition, advisory bodies and ethics boards will guide the continent in navigating AI governance challenges while fostering a culture of responsible AI development.⁴² Notably, the Strategy calls for ongoing African-led research to explore AI’s impact on African societies, to provide funding and fellowships, and to establish research chairs dedicated to AI governance.⁴³

Tools and Standards for Practical AI Implementation

To ensure the success of this governance framework, practical tools and standards are needed to guide AI development and deployment, especially in terms of privacy protection, transparency, and accountability. Establishing AI transparency registers, algorithmic audits, and incentivising citizen-led solutions to detect and mitigate AI biases will further safeguard African societies from the potential risks associated with AI.⁴⁴ Ultimately, a forward-looking, inclusive, and adaptive regulatory framework is essential to ensure that AI’s transformative potential benefits Africa’s development without compromising its ethical foundations or cultural integrity.

Guiding Principles

In evaluating the guiding principles of the Continental Strategy, it is essential to adopt a critical lens that considers the theoretical grounding and practical implications of these principles. This allows us to appreciate the relevance of these principles, their capability for implementation and their effectiveness in addressing the unique challenges faced by the continent.

Local First Principle

AI governance often mirrors Western-centric perspectives, where the interests of African states are sidelined in global policy development.⁴⁵ However, the AU Continental AI strategy creates a new narrative with its local first principle. The principle prioritises the Continent by realigning the “locus of control” of AI design, development and regulation within an African context. ⁴⁶ The principle emphasises the importance of developing AI technologies that are tailored to the specific needs and beneficial to the communities they aim to serve.⁴⁷ The development of these technologies should stem from local talent within local ecosystems.⁴⁸ Additionally, at the forefront of development is the appreciation of pluralism, as the principle highlights cultural values and customs as key assets within the AI ecosystem that should be preserved and applied.⁴⁹ The principle provides guidance while allowing flexibility and adaptation to local contexts, aligning with the “local first solutions” approach. However, flexibility and a standardised approach is double-edged, as the principle needs to appreciate the various socio-economic and development contexts of different African states. Therefore, the adaptability of this principle necessitates specific implementation guidelines across all stages of the AI lifecycle to ensure equitable and ethical development.

People-Centred Principle

The principle of a people-centred approach prioritises inclusivity and sustainable growth, ensuring that technological advancements benefit all segments of society. ⁵⁰The integration of local cultural values into AI systems is essential for fostering acceptance and trust among users.⁵¹ However, the challenge remains in balancing technological innovation with preserving cultural identities. The potential for AI to exacerbate existing inequalities must be critically assessed.

Human Rights and Human Dignity

The principle of human rights and human dignity is a fundamental principle that must guide AI development in Africa. This principle aligns with the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, which emphasises the importance of gender equality and respect for human rights. The evaluation of AI systems must consider their impact on vulnerable populations, ensuring that they do not perpetuate discrimination or bias.

Peace and Prosperity

Peace and Prosperity in the context of AI development in Africa emphasises the need for AI systems to contribute to the establishment of peaceful societies, ensuring safety, security, and environmental sustainability. AI technologies can enhance public safety through predictive analytics, which can help law enforcement agencies allocate resources effectively to prevent crime. This aligns with focus areas noted in the continental strategy leveraging AI for human security and reduction of violent crimes.

Inclusion and Diversity

The principle of inclusion and diversity emphasises the need for AI systems to be non-discriminatory and to respect the rich tapestry of African cultures, languages, and identities. Algorithmic bias is a significant concern in AI development, particularly when datasets used for training AI systems do not accurately represent the diversity of the African population. This underrepresentation can lead to AI applications that fail to address the needs of marginalised groups, exacerbating existing inequalities. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that AI development processes actively involve diverse stakeholders, including women and underrepresented communities, to create solutions that are equitable and beneficial for all.⁵² Moreover, the potential for AI to empower African women is particularly noteworthy. By harnessing AI technologies, initiatives can be designed to support women’s entrepreneurship and access to resources, thereby fostering economic empowerment and gender equality.⁵³ However, achieving true inclusivity requires a concerted effort to dismantle systemic barriers that hinder participation from diverse groups, where there should be dialogue amongst stakeholders from various sociocultural backgrounds to address these disparities. ⁵⁴

Ethics and Transparency

The principle is paramount in the governance of AI technologies to prevent biases, inequalities, and the marginalisation of certain groups.⁵⁵ Developing ethical guidelines for AI is essential to ensure that AI applications align with human rights principles and promote social good.⁵⁶ Ethical considerations must be integrated into AI policies to mitigate the socio-cultural impacts of AI technologies.⁵⁷ This includes addressing concerns about data privacy, algorithmic accountability, and the potential for AI to perpetuate existing power imbalances.⁵⁸ Furthermore, establishing transparent governance frameworks is crucial for fostering public trust in AI systems.⁵⁹ Ethical issues are often sidelined in discussions about AI in Africa, which can lead to the implementation of technologies that do not serve the public interest.⁶⁰ Therefore, it is vital to create mechanisms for public engagement and oversight in AI development to ensure that ethical considerations are prioritised and that the voices of affected communities are heard.

Cooperation and Integration

The principle calls for regional collaboration in advancing AI capacities and ecosystems across Africa. This involves fostering partnerships among member states, regional organisations, and international entities to create a cohesive approach to AI governance.⁶¹By sharing knowledge, resources, and best practices, African nations can collectively enhance their AI capabilities and address common challenges. Moreover, the establishment of regional centres of excellence for AI can facilitate knowledge transfer and capacity building, enabling countries to self-manage their data and AI initiatives effectively.⁶² This collaborative approach not only strengthens regional integration but also empowers African nations to take ownership of their technological development and data governance.

The successful implementation of AI technologies in Africa hinges on the development of a skilled workforce equipped to navigate the complexities of an AI-driven future.⁶³ This necessitates a robust education system that includes both formal and informal AI training programs to build the necessary competencies among the population. Education and public awareness are critical for ensuring that individuals understand the implications of AI and are prepared to engage with these technologies.⁶⁴ Furthermore, initiatives aimed at promoting AI literacy should target diverse demographics, including youth, women, and rural communities, to ensure that no one is left behind in the AI revolution. By fostering a culture of innovation and continuous learning, African nations can cultivate a workforce that is not only skilled in AI technologies but also capable of leveraging these tools to address local challenges and drive economic growth.⁶⁵

Call to Action and Implementation of the Strategy

This Strategy represents a pivotal moment for Africa, offering a firm framework upon which African countries can harness benefits while ensuring AI development is rooted in African values and contexts. The first step towards realising this vision is the domestication of the strategy. African countries must transform its vision from a guiding document into actionable policies that reflect each nation’s unique needs and aspirations. The Strategy also underscores the need to create Afro-centric AI strategies, avoiding the pitfalls of merely replicating frameworks from the global north, which often prioritise different objectives and values. Countries such as Benin, Egypt, Mauritius, Rwanda, and Senegal have developed independent AI strategies, while others like Kenya, South Africa, and Uganda are developing strategies or have AI considerations integrated into technology policies. Each country’s diversity in priorities and approach further highlights the need for tailored responses that resonate with local contexts and challenges. For instance, before embarking on its AI strategy, Rwanda progressively established robust frameworks for the new data ecosystem with its Rwanda Data Revolution Strategy of 2017-2022, which empowered the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR)⁶⁶ to improve data management systems in the country, through streamlined public record cataloguing and enhanced data sharing mechanisms among government agencies.⁶⁷ Their AI strategy reflects the same sharp focus on data strategy to improve the quality and quantity of data, which would further enhance effective and responsible AI adoption.⁶⁸

Ubuntu, the understanding that we are deeply interconnected in our humanity and existence,is a key priority in AI governance discussions among African experts.⁶⁹ The question often arises: are individualistic tendencies emerging within African societies due to the consumption of Western culture through technology? There is a focus on how external algorithms designed for different audiences will likely dictate our narratives and priorities; hence, there is a call to reclaim the African agency in defining its knowledge structures, culture, and priorities in the AI context. To achieve this, national AI strategies must reflect the communal values that have historically guided African societies, drawing inspiration from the wisdom of our ancestors and adapting it for future generations.

Trust in African governments has been eroded by historical issues of corruption and mismanagement,⁷⁰ and the digitisation of these challenges could further entrench them if not addressed properly. The strategy encourages African countries to consider a multi-tiered governance approach by introducing amendments to existing laws where relevant, after which they can identify and fill policy gaps to enable AI ecosystems, ensure equal distribution of benefits, and mitigate risks.⁷¹ The Strategy also underscores the significant potential of AI to improve service delivery, including areas such as collecting taxes, issuing payments to safety net candidates, and other public service delivery.⁷² The beneficial execution of AI in these critical sectors is as strong as the accountability measures accompanying such implementation. As such, the Strategy insists on transparency in AI governance structures, calling for “AI transparency registers” to indicate AI systems in use on the continent, their potential risks and vulnerable populations, and necessary reporting mechanisms for affected users.⁷³ Thus, in implementing the strategy through national mechanisms, African governments must prevent further erosion of public trust by establishing clear transparency and accountability guidelines when using AI in public service delivery.

A Critical Lens: Evaluating the Strategy

No Harmonisation – Multiplicity of Documents

The proliferation of AI-related documents, including the earlier AUDA-NEPAD White Paper and the Artificial Intelligence Roadmap for Africa, raises questions about coherence and alignment within the African Union’s approach to AI governance. While the documents offer a progressive approach – with the White Paper outlining broad strategic goals and aspirations and the Roadmap expanding on these by setting specific actions to achieve them – the final Strategy’s attempt to harmonise these priorities might not be effective since each country’s enforcement will focus on different priorities based on local needs. The lack of a unified strategy risks undermining the collective efforts made in previous documents and could lead to fragmented implementation across member states. Fragmentation also risks countries failing to utilise the collective mission and adopting established approaches, such as those from the European Union, without considering local contexts. Thus, the Strategy must be viewed as a collection of views reflected in the various documents to present a comprehensive governance framework for African countries.

Genuine Multistakeholderism

A significant concern arising from the Strategy is the extent to which relevant stakeholders were involved in its drafting process. The success of any AI governance framework relies heavily on the input of diverse stakeholders, including developers, civil society, academia, and users, including marginalised users. While the process to develop the framework engaged experts from all over the continent,⁷⁴ it did not adequately consider the perspectives of the most vulnerable users. Genuine multi-stakeholder approach also requires the availability of feedback mechanisms for implementation tracking, particularly as it pertains to marginalised groups such as people with disabilities, women and people living in rural Africa. The Strategy stipulates that the AU Commission will create a five-year implementation plan,⁷⁵ and member states will construct normative frameworks and AI readiness indices to monitor and evaluate the strategy’s implementation.⁷⁶ In so doing, national implementation of the strategy must incorporate the views of these vulnerable groups to guarantee their involvement in training and benefit-sharing. This participatory approach will enhance the impact of the strategy, fostering an inclusive environment where all Africans can benefit from advancements in AI.

Inequalities in the Face of Calls for Global Cooperation

The 15th action area of the Strategy champions the need for global technical and financial partnerships in implementing the strategy, which raises questions about effective execution by African nations in an unequal world.⁷⁷ In the technology ecosystem, Africans often consume technology produced by more powerful countries, private companies and development partners. Further, African participation in global policy dialogues is often tokenistic.⁷⁸ This unequal partnership is exacerbated when foreign support mechanisms purport to define the African agenda, thus undermining African knowledge systems and cultures. Thus, the aspiration for global cooperation in AI governance must contend with the realities of power imbalances and the often compromised sovereignty of third-world countries. The strategy positions itself as Africa’s contribution to the United Nations Summit of the Future.⁷⁹ Hence, this participation on the global stage must be substantive rather than ceremonial.

Conclusion

The Continental AI Strategy represents a transformative vision for African nations to leverage AI to drive development by addressing critical problems in education, agriculture, and healthcare, among other sectors. However, implementing the Strategy must consider ethical adoption and a united approach to AI governance that considers African contexts. The Strategy’s commitment to the principles of transparency and accountability is commendable, even if gaps remain in terms of genuine multistakeholderism, and genuine consideration of diverse views of users, especially vulnerable groups. Paying attention to these considerations would help to restore public trust in African governments, especially where AI is used in public service delivery. Implementation must also contend with the complexities of international partnerships, ensuring that African nations maintain a sense of autonomy and that partnerships are equitable and for mutual benefit.

In conclusion, the Strategy establishes a framework for the continent to harness AI benefits. It will succeed through meaningful collaboration, inclusivity, multistakeholderism, and a focus on ethical governance. This will establish the continent as a key player in the AI revolution and a voice for innovative and responsible adoption of Artificial Intelligence.

1 Rockwell Anyoha, ‘The History of Artificial Intelligence- Can Machines Think,’ https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/history-artificial-intelligence/ accessed 12 September 2024.

2 Copeland, B.J.. “History of Artificial Intelligence (AI)”. Encyclopedia Britannica, updated 13 September 2024, https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-artificial-intelligence. Accessed 12 September 2024.

3 The EU Artificial Intelligence Act, P9_TA(2024)0138, https://artificialintelligenceact.eu/ , https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2024-0138_EN.pdf accessed 12 September 2024.

4 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy,’

https://au.int/en/documents/20240809/continental-artificial-intelligence-strategy accessed 16 September 2024

5 ibid

6 Ayang Macdonald, ‘African Union adopts AI strategy to streamline continental digital transformation efforts,’ https://www.biometricupdate.com/202407/african-union-adopts-ai-strategy-to-streamline-continental-digital-transformation-efforts accessed 16 September 2024.

7 Global Center on AI Governance, ‘Africa Now Has a Continental AI Strategy: What Next?’Ayantola Alayande and Rachel Adams, 22 August 2024

https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/620b3700f2c761fd986be9f5/66d5b90f59c77ef2ccc7fd5e_Africa%20now%20has%20a%20continental%20strategy_What%20next.pdf accessed 17 September 2024.

8 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy’ (n4)

9 ibid p.60-61.

10 ibid

11 ibid p.36, see also n.12 p.6

12 ibid p.27

13 ibid p.29

14 ibid p.33

15 ibid p.57

16 ibid p.29

17 ibid..p 28-29

18 ibid..4.

19 ibid…3-5

20 ibid

21 ibid

22 ibid

23 ibid

24 ibid

25 ibid

26 ibid

27 ibid

28 ibid

29 ibid..p.32

30 ibid

31 ibid

32 Abdulrahman Adebayo, ‘Africa’s AI Ambitions: What to know about the AU continental strategy,’ https://www.dataphyte.com/latest-reports/africas-ai-ambitions-what-to-know-about-the-au-continental-strategy/ accessed 19 September 2024.

33 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy’(n34)

34 ibid

35 ibid

36 ibid p.33

37 ibid

38 ibid

39 ibid

40 ibid p.34

41 ibid

42 ibid

43 ibid

44 ibid p.35

45 Ayana G et al., Decolonizing global AI governance: assessment of the state of decolonized AI governance in Sub-Saharan Africa[2024] R. Soc. Open Sci. 11

46 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy’(n47) p27

47 ibid

48 ibid

49 ibid

50 ibid

51 ibid

52 Gwagwa A, Makhura M & Mhlanga D, Artificial Intelligence (AI) Deployments in Africa: Benefits, Challenges and Policy Dimensions[2020] The Africa Journal of Information and Communication , 26.

53 ibid.

54 Franzke A, An exploratory qualitative analysis of AI ethics guidelines [2022]Journal of Information Communication and Ethics in Society 20(1).

55 Kluge N, Corre A, Galva C,Santos W J, Galva L, Terem E & Oliveira de N, Worldwide AI ethics: A review of 200 guidelines and recommendations for AI governance [2023] Patterns 4

56 ibid.

57 ibid.

58 ibid.

59 ibid.

60 Kiemdes S M A & Kora A D, Towards an ethics of AI in Africa : Rule of Education [2021] AI and Ethics 2(1).

61 Eke, D.O., Wakunuma, K., Akintoye, S. (eds) Responsible AI in Africa. Social and Cultural Studies of Robots and AI ; Okolo, C.T., Aruleba, K., Obaido, G : Responsible AI in Africa—Challenges and Opportunities (Palgrave Macmillan, 2023)

62 Otaigbe E, Scaling up artificial intelligence to curb infectious diseases in Africa [2022] Frontiers in Digital Health <https://doi:10.3389/fdgth.2022.1030427> .

63 S. M. Anicet KIEMDE and A. Dooguy KORA, “The Challenges Facing the Development of AI in Africa,” 2020 IEEE International Conference on Advent Trends in Multidisciplinary Research and Innovation (ICATMRI), Buldhana, India,

64 Wakunuma K , Mhlanga D & Gwagwa A, Responsible AI SDGs and AI Government in Africa IST – Africa 2022 Conference Proceedings <https://doi:10.23919/ist-africa56635.2022.9845598>

65 Shafik A, Navigating Everyday Challenges in Robotics in Africa [2024] Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in the 21st Century , IGI Global.

66 Ministry of Youth and ICT, ‘National Data Revolution Policy’ (2017) <https://statistics.gov.rw/file/5410/download?token=r0nXaTAv>.

67 Paula Ingabire, ‘Rwanda’s Data Governance: Navigating Data Governance in the Public Sector’ (Brookings2 May 2024) <https://www.brookings.edu/articles/rwandas-data-governance-navigating-data-governance-in-the-public-sector/>.

68Ministry of ICT and Innovation – Rwanda, ‘Ministry of ICT and Innovation Republic of Rwanda’ (2022) <https://rura.rw/fileadmin/Documents/ICT/Laws/Rwanda_national_Artificial_intelligence_Policy.pdf>

69Melody Musoni, ‘Envisioning Africa’s AI Governance Landscape in 2024’ (2024) <https://ecdpm.org/application/files/7017/0651/8711/Envisioning-Africas-AI-Governance-Landscape-in-2024-ECDPM-Briefing-Note-177-2024.pdf>.

70Mark Omorovie Ikeke, ‘Corruption and Good Governance in Africa: A Hermeneutical Analysis’ (2024) 7 East African Journal of Law and Ethics 29 <https://journals.eanso.org/index.php/eajle/article/view/1894>.

71 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy: Harnessing AI for Africa’s Development and Prosperity’ (2024) pp 32 <https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/44004-doc-EN-_Continental_AI_Strategy_July_2024.pdf>

72 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy: Harnessing AI for Africa’s Development and Prosperity’ (2024) pp 36 <https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/44004-doc-EN-_Continental_AI_Strategy_July_2024.pdf>.

73 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy: Harnessing AI for Africa’s Development and Prosperity’ (2024) pp 35 <https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/44004-doc-EN-_Continental_AI_Strategy_July_2024.pdf>.

74 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy: Harnessing AI for Africa’s Development and Prosperity’ (2024) pp 2 <https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/44004-doc-EN-_Continental_AI_Strategy_July_2024.pdf>.

75 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy: Harnessing AI for Africa’s Development and Prosperity’ (2024) pp 6 <https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/44004-doc-EN-_Continental_AI_Strategy_July_2024.pdf>.

76 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy: Harnessing AI for Africa’s Development and Prosperity’ (2024) pp 61 <https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/44004-doc-EN-_Continental_AI_Strategy_July_2024.pdf>.

77 African Union, ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy: Harnessing AI for Africa’s Development and Prosperity’ (2024) pp 58 <https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/44004-doc-EN-_Continental_AI_Strategy_July_2024.pdf> .

78 Melody Musoni, ‘Envisioning Africa’s AI Governance Landscape in 2024’ (2024)

79 United Nations, ‘Summit of the Future Website – EN’ (United Nations 2024) <https://www.un.org/en/summit-of-the-future> .